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Women in Defence System – Bosnia and Herzegovina – 2023

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National Action Plan 1325:

The third local action plan of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the women, peace and security agenda expired in 2022. In 2021, the BiH Agency for Gender Equality published the final evaluation report on the implementation of UNSCR 1325 “Women, Peace and Security” in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the period 2018–2022.

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Participation of women in the MoDs and the Armed Forces:

The number of members of the Armed Forces and the Ministry of Defence is limited by the Law on the Budget of BiH Institutions and by international obligations of BiH to have 10,000 professional military personnel (generals,
officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers) and 1,000 civilians employed in the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.¹ The total number of employees in the defence system is currently 8,482, and women make up 8.2% of professional military personnel (674). According to data from 2023, the number of women among the civil servants and employees in the MoD is currently 100, which is 43.1% of total number of civil servants (232). When it comes to the share of uniformed women among officers, non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and soldiers, Bosnia and Herzegovina has 6.7% female officers (120), 4.9% NCOs (127) and 11.1% soldiers (427). Compared to 2019, there is a decrease in the representation of women in the total number of professional military personnel and civil servants, but there is also a slight increase in female officers and soldiers.

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Representation of women in command and leadership positions:

There are currently 106 women in leadership and commanding positions, i.e. 4.2% of the total number of employees in the MoD and AF. The highest rank held by women in the Armed Forces of BiH is still that of Colonel, while a woman headed the Ministry of Defence from 2015 to 2019.

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Participation of women in peacekeeping operations:

There are currently no members of the Ministry of Security and the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina engaged in peacekeeping missions.

      1. Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, O oružanim snagama Bosne i Hercegovine [On the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina], 2022,
        http://os.mod.gov.ba/o-oruzanim-snagama-bih/misija/Default.aspx?id=41&lang-Tag=bs-BA&template_id=181&pageIndex=1

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Women In Defence System –
Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Women in Defence System – Albania – 2023

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National Action Plan 1325:

Most countries have already adopted the second generation of action plans, except for Albania, which was the last in the region to adopt the first Action Plan in 2018. The Albanian Action Plan expired in 2020 and there seems to be no political will to draft a new one. The Ministry of Defence however states that it complies with other gender related documents, such as the newly adopted National Strategy on Gender Equality 2021-2030. The Ministry is focused on fulfilling three strategic goals: promoting and enhancing women’s leadership in the military, increasing women’s participation in missions and operations, and increasing the number of women in the Albanian military representations in NATO command structures and the number of women in diplomatic missions.

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Participation of women in the MoDs and the Armed Forces:

The total number of employees in the Ministry of Defence and the Armed Forces is 7,749, of which 19.98% are women. This constitutes a slight increase of 0.58% compared to 2021. The representation of women in the Albanian Armed Forces is 14.98% (892 women out of 5,953 personnel), which is an increase of 0.66% compared to
2021. Albania thus met the NATO goal of 15% of female uniformed personnel in the armed forces. However, Albania is the only country in the region with the quota for women in the army (15%) that can affect their further admission. The increase of representation of women in the armed forces is slow; namely, the percentage of women military personnel in the armed forces in 2011 was 12.3%, in 2012 – 13.42%, while in 2013 it decreased to 11.2%.¹ Still, Albania had the highest share of women officers and non-commissioned officers (NCOs) in 2022 – 21.01% of the officers (365 out of the total of 1,737) and 13.78% of the non-commissioned officers (348 out of the total of 2,525), while female enlisted personnel make up 10.58% (179 out of the total of 1,691), which is an increase of 1.94%. The percentage of women among the civil employees in the MoD is 36.56%. In other words, out of 1,795 civil servants, 657 are women.

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Representation of women in command and leadership positions:

Female officers who perform duties of commander and deputy commander make up 8.25% (35 women out of 424). The highest rank of women in the Albanian Armed Forces is that of Major General. This rank is held by Manushaqe Shehu, who became the first female Deputy Chief of General Staff of the Albanian Armed Forces in 2018. Until recently, Albania had two women defence ministers, who headed the Ministry from 2013 to 2020. Mrs. Olta Xhaçka was the second woman to be appointed Minister of Defence (2017-2020) after Mrs. Mimi Kodheli, who led the defence sector for four consecutive years. There are also other decision-making positions held by women, such as that of Deputy Defence Minister.

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Participation of women in peacekeeping operations:

As at 21 December 2022, 16 out of 324 military personnel participating in missions are women, which is 5%. This represents a slight decrease compared to 2019, when 7% of women participated in NATO operations. ²

      1.    Megi Llubani, Women’s representation in the security sector in Albania, Albanian Institute for International Studies, 2014, https://www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/albania.pdf
      2.    North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Summary of the National Reports of NATO Member and Partner Nationsto the NATO Committee on Gender Perspectives, 2019, p. 142, https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2021/9/pdf/NCGP_Full_Report_2019.pdf

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Women In Defence System – Albania

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2023-DE-Srbija

Defence expenditure – Serbia – 2023

Serbian defence expenditure kept gradually rising since 2016, with a sharpest increase in 2021. Military spending took up an increasing share of the total expenditure, from 4% in 2017 to almost 8% in 2022.

The National Assembly usually adopts the budget for the forthcoming year in early December. Balance sheets presenting the actual budget spending were late for 16 years, and the National Assembly retroactively adopted all of them in 2019.

2022

Share of GDP 2.15%
Share of total government
expenditure 7.67%

The Serbian defence budget undergoes major changes as the year progresses. Resources are allocated from budget reserves, predominantly for arms and equipment. In the absence of extraordinary circumstances that would require extreme measures, such radical increases indicate
lack of comprehensive defence planning.

 

Serbia has been applying programme budgeting since 2015. The budget is therefore broken down into programmes, presenting budget
funds for specific areas as well as different sources of funds. Still, the budget is not sufficiently disaggregated and detailed, which prevents comprehensive oversight. For instance, arms and expenditure
costs are not disaggregated by concrete projects, making it impossible to connect them to individual procurements.

As can be seen from the budget structure, the upsurge in the military budget is the result of increasing arms and equipment costs, but also a gradual increase in personnel costs since 2021. In line with the above, a trend of decreasing the amount of other costs (which includes maintenance and operational costs) can be observed.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Defence Expeditures – Serbia

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Defence expenditure – North Macedonia – 2023

North Macedonian defence expenditure increased approximately 30% from 2017 to 2020. Further increases were planned after the country became a member of NATO in 2020. Before that, it was
spending roughly 1% on the military. Defence expenditure has taken up an increasing portion of the total government spending, from 2.7% in 2017 to 5.2% that was planned for 2023.

2022

Share of GDP 1.64%
Share of total government
expenditure 5.02%

The Assembly of the Republic of North Macedonia usually adopts budget laws in late December, while balance sheets are adopted regularly, with some occasional delays. The MoD regularly publishes semi-annual budget realisation reports.


North Macedonian defence budget changed in 2021, as the country signed the contract to buy Stryker light armoured vehicles. This purchase altered the budget structure in favour of arms and equipment.

Similar to other countries in the region, North Macedonia uses programme budgeting, which is not sufficiently disaggregated. Budgets and balance sheets show highly aggregated sums for different programmes, and sources of funding are presented for the entire MoD budget.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Defence Expenditures – North Macedonia

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Defence expenditure – Montenegro – 2023

Montenegrin defence expenditure experienced a big increase right after the country joined NATO, in 2018 and 2019, caused by the attempt to meet the commitments made to the Alliance. However, it went backx to its earlier level in 2020. Besides the pandemic, the change of government after the 2020 elections and the subsequent
political crisis have certainly also influenced the overall budget and defence planning for the forthcoming period.

2022

Share of GDP 1.64%
Share of total government
expenditure 5.02%

The Parliament adopted the 2021 budget after a delay of more than six months. Earlier, the Government would usually provide a budget proposal to the Parliament one month before the start of the next budget year. The Parliament has never adopted any balance sheet submitted by the government even, though it is legally required to do so.

 

Montenegro spends the greatest share of its defence budget on personnel. This trend was shortly interrupted by the increase in arms and equipment expenditure in 2018 and 2019, when Montenegro started the procedure to procure Bell helicopters and Oshkosh armored vehicles. Nevertheless, big leaps in defence spending during the year, allocated to arms and equipment, suggest a general lack of long-term defense planning in Montenegro.

Even though the Montenegrin budget demonstrates a slightly higher level of transparency than those of most countries in the region (i.e. it shows individual projects or procurement), it still lacks sufficient transparency and disaggregation.

* Data for 2021 and 2022 are based on the last changes in the 2021 budgets and the initial budget laws for 2022.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Defence Expenditures – Montenegro

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2023-DE-Croatia

Defence expenditure – Croatia – 2023

Croatian military expenditure had a sharp increase in 2021, due to the to the contract signed for the purchase of 12 French Dassault Rafale fighter jets at the end of the year. Before that, the expenditure did not experience any large changes, either nominally, or as a military burden. Defence expenditure has taken up around 3.50% of the total governmentexpenditure until 2021.

2022

Share of GDP 1.67%
Share of total government
expenditure 4.35%

The Croatian Parliament regularly adopts the budget for the forthcoming year in late November or early December. The Parliament also regularly adopts balance sheets and yearly Reports on Defence.

The 2021 increase is entirely attributed to the Rafale purchase at the end of the year, which resulted in a rebalance and a 43% increase in the planned budget. Prior to that, there were no significant fluctuations during the year, and the initial budget was slightly underspent. Croatia spent the largest portion of its military budget on personnel; however, the above purchase changed the planned budget structure in favour of arms and equipment. The Croatian defence budget is the most transparent and disaggregated in the region. Unlike the budgets of other countries, it shows major procurements individually and breaks them down into subcategories.

The Croatian defence budget is the most transparent and disaggregated in the region. Unlike the budgets of other countries, the Croatian budget shows major procurements individually and breaks them down into subcategories.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Defence Expenditures – Croatia

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Defence expenditure – Bosnia and Herzegovina – 2023

Military expenditure of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been almost the same in the past five years, both nominally and as the share of GDP.¹

The Parliamentary Assembly has not adopted a federal budget in a timely manner since 2018.
The budget is usually adopted during, or at the end of, the year to which it pertains. Due to a political
crisis, the federal budget for 2021 was not been adopted at all, and quarterly decisions on temporary
financing were adopted on the basis of the 2020 expenditure. The 2022 budget was adopted only
in July, while the budget for 2023 has not been adopted yet. Balance sheets, presenting the actual
expenditure, are adopted regularly and in a timely fashion.

2021

Share of GDP 0.74%

 

Almost 90% of the defence budget in 2021 and 2022 was spent on personnel due to the political deadlock, which obstructed planning and allocation of resources. Bosnia and Herzegovina generally spends the largest portion of its defence budget on personnel costs, while the arms and equipment share has not exceeded 4% since 2017. Budget and balance sheets contain aggregated sums and sources of funding for rather general categories of expenses. For instance, arms and equipment expenses can be found under the aggregated category Equipment Procurement. The documents also include narrative reports with the rationale behind some general categories, i.e. monthly personnel turnover.

    1. Due to the complexity of the budget system, it is methodologically challenging to calculate the military expenditure of BiH as a share of the total government expenditure, comparable to other countries in the region. Namely, the two entities have independent budgets that, then, allocate funds upward to the federal budget, which includes the defence budget.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Defence Expenditures –
Bosnia and Herzegovina

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2023-DE-Albanija

Defence expenditure – Albania – 2023

Albanian defence expenditure has experienced a steady increase since 2017, with the exception of 2020, when spending on defence stagnated. Even though it has not reached the NATO goal of 2%
of GDP, the defence expenditure’s share in Albania’s total government expenditure increased from 4.5% in 2017 to almost 9% planned for 2022.

2022

Share of GDP 1.67%
Share of total government
expenditure 8.86%

The Albanian defence spending does not deviate significantly from the budget (+- 4%). In fact,it is usually slightly underspent.

 

The Albanian defence budget is the least transparent and detailed in the region, as it shows only several general categories: Planning, Management and Administration, Combat Forces, Military Education, Combat Support and Health Support. Hence, the publicly available information makes the budget structure and the amounts spent on personnel, or on arms and equipment, inconclusive. Data provided to NATO show that the gradual rise of the Albanian defence expenditure can be attributed to small increases in the arms and equipment
spending each year. On the other hand, personnel costs have faced a downward trend since 2017. In 2022, Albania announced the procurement of Javelin anti-tank missiles and Bayraktar drones.

    1. The Albanian budget structure graph was designed using information from the NATO database. Since it could not be derived from the government balance sheets or budgets due to the highly aggregated structure of the documents, it should not be directly compared with the budget structure of other countries in this report.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Defence Expenditures – Albania

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Strategic Document – BiH – 2023

NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY: 2006
NATIONAL DEFENCE STRATEGY: 2008

NO CHANGES IN 2022

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National interests and goals (as defined in the Strategies):
Protection and consolidation of National interests and goals (as defined in the Strategies): Establishing and developing security system institutions that will be able to respond to all risks and threats // Accession to international security conventions, European and Euro-Atlantic structures

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Main threats:
Political and social animosities caused by the war and nationalist extremism // Incomplete implementation of the Dayton Peace Agreement // Problems related to political transition // Critical regional points, such as Kosovo and Metohija.

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Main principles of national security policy:
Democratic, civilian control of the military and parliamentary oversight // Transparency of defence-related activities, including defence planning and budgeting // Integration into Euro-Atlantic collective security structures

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Regional cooperation:
Bosnia and Herzegovina has no territorial claims involving neighbouring and other states, nor does it perceive neighbouring and other states as hostile and a possible threat to its territorial integrity and sovereignty. Therefore, it is especially important that BiH further develops good neighbourly relations based on the principles of equality and cooperation. Improving good relations and cooperation with neighbours and countries in the wider region, the development of democratic processes in these countries, and the process of their European integration have a positive impact on strengthening the internal security of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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Regional threats:
South-east remains the most sensitive area of today’s Europe. Efforts toward secession, autonomy and independence of certain ethnic groups are still present in this area, which, together with the relatively high concentration of military capacities, further complicates the overall security situation.

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Relations with NATO:
The key element for achieving the unquestionable collective military security of Bosnia and Herzegovina is to become a member of NATO, as in that case its national sovereignty and territorial integrity would be guaranteed by the Alliance. Membership in the Partnership for Peace is the first step in that direction. Further reform in the field of defence, which will lead to full professionalisation, equipping and training the BiH Armed Forces in accordance with NATO standards, will enable BiH to make a significant contribution to achieving the goals of the Security Policy in the future.

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Relations with the EU:
The commitment to gradual integration into the European Union implies readiness to accept the provisions, legal structure and organisational mechanisms of the EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy.

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International military cooperation:
As an active participant in collective security at the global level through membership in the United Nations, the OSCE and the Council of Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is engaged in international peace efforts.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Strategic Documents – Bosnia and Hezgegovina

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Strategic Document – Albania – 2023

NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY: 2014
NATIONAL DEFENCE STRATEGY: 2015

NO CHANGES IN 2022

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National interests and goals (as defined in the Strategies):
Protection and consolidation of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of the Republic of Albania // Strengthening fundamental freedoms, human rights and the rule of law // Protection and promotion of the interests of Albanians wherever they may be // Preservation and development of national identity

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Main threats:
Organised crime // Corrupt individuals // Terrorism // Proliferation of weapons ofmass destruction and long-range weapons

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Main principles of national security policy:
Accountability and transparency // Activities of the Armed Forces based on the Constitution and subject to democratic control of competent institutions // Small, efficient and profiled force based on personnel rather than heavy weaponry // Promoting gender equality and increasing women’s participation

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Regional cooperation:
Peace, stability and prosperity in the region are of strategic importance to Albania. Our interest is to have a region that is integrated into the European and Euro-Atlantic structures, where inter-ethnic and inter-religious harmony reigns. This will be realised through good neighbourly relations, cooperation in good faith, respect for minorities and inclusion. Relations between the countries of the region have improved, and cooperation has increased both qualitatively and quantitatively. Integration processes are catalysts for democratic reform, cooperation, good neighbouring relations and the reconciliation process. Promoting sustainable economic development will be achieved through deep regional economic integration aimed at creating an open and free regional market as a precondition for the region’s European and Euro-Atlantic integration.

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Regional threats:
Problems in the region can still be caused by extreme nationalism. The existence of divided societies continues to pose a potential threat, due to the potential reopening of the border issue. Political exploitation and failure to exercise the rights of certain ethnic or minority groups could continue to cause sporadic tensions and generate negative consequences in bilateral and multilateral relations. Unresolved interstate disputes and problems can affect the quality of regional cooperation and good neighbourly relations, slowing down integration
processes.

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Relations with NATO:
Membership in the North Atlantic Alliance is an inherent guarantee of national security, and the Republic of Albania is committed to fulfilling the obligations arising from saidmembership.

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Relations with the EU:
Albania’s membership in the European Union is the country’s most important strategic goal for the next decade. EU integration is also linked to the country’s participation in the European Union’s Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Common Security and Defence Policy.

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International military cooperation:
Albania is committed to actively promoting regional and global peace and stability, increasing its role in regional and international organisations, and to participating in missions led by the UN, NATO and the EU.

2023 – Balkan Defence Monitor
Strategic Documents – Albania

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